When speaking about basketball, players spoke like expertsthey were confident; they sat up straight and answered in relaxed, even vocal tones. For example, a less-than-skilled reader may nevertheless approach a difficult reading task with strong motivation to persist in the task if it is interesting, useful, or important to the readers identity (National Research Council, 2012c). While empirical and theoretical work in this area continues to develop, recent research does strongly support the following conclusion: CONCLUSION 6-1: Motivation to learn is influenced by the multiple goals that individuals construct for themselves as a result of their life and school experiences and the sociocultural context in which learning takes place. A number of studies suggest that situational interest can be a strong predictor of engagement, positive attitudes, and performance, including a study of students essay writing (Flowerday et al., 2004) and other research (e.g., Alexander and Jetton, 1996; Schraw and Lehman, 2001). Research in this area suggests that learners who strongly endorse mastery goals tend to enjoy novel and challenging tasks (Pintrich, 2000; Shim et al., 2008; Witkow and Fuligni, 2007; Wolters, 2004), demonstrate a greater willingness to expend effort, and engage higher-order cognitive skills during learning (Ames, 1992; Dweck and Leggett, 1988; Kahraman and Sungur, 2011; Middleton and Midgley, 1997). For example, activities that learners perceive as enjoyable or interesting can foster engagement without the learners. of different performance-based incentives in classrooms (e.g., grades, prizes), a better, more integrated understanding is needed of how external rewards may harm or benefit learners motivation in ways that matter to achievement and performance in a range of real-world conditions across the life span. This approach has allowed researchers to assess the separate effects of topic interest and interest in a specific text on how readers interact with text, by measuring the amount of time learners spend reading and what they learn from it. Accordingly, motivational orientations can be broadly differentiated into three forms: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and amotivation (see Fig. 5.1 ). Some people approach LL with an inherent interest in it. Advances since the publication of HPL I provide robust evidence for the importance of both an individuals goals in motivation related to learning and the active role of the learner in shaping these goals, based on how that learner conceives the learning context and the experiences that occur during learning. For example, researchers who study psychological aspects of motivation take a motivational systems perspective, viewing motivation as a set of psychological mechanisms and processes, such as those related to setting goals, engagement in learning, and use of self-regulatory strategies (Kanfer, 2015; Linnenbrink-Garcia and Patall, 2016; Yeager and Walton, 2011). In a study by Nasir and McKinney de Royston (2013), students were asked to solve problems involving averages and percentages in the context of either basketball or classroom math. The researchers posted the advertisements and assessed their effectiveness both by counting how many clicks each generated and by asking experts in Web graphics to rate them. Over the past several decades, researchers have attempted to discern the influence of culture on a persons self-construal, or definition of herself in reference to others. How People Learn II will become an indispensable resource to understand learning throughout the lifespan for educators of students and adults. Given the prevalence. conscious awareness. Interest is also important in adult learning in part because students and trainees with little interest in a topic may show higher rates of absenteeism and lower levels of performance (Ackerman et al., 2001). It is also distinguishable from states related to it, such as engagement, interest, goal orientation, grit, and tenacity, all of which have different antecedents and different implications for learning and achievement (Jrvel and Renninger, 2014). Learning environments differ in the learning expectations, rules, and. Sensitivity to these learning-related stereotypes appears as early as second grade (Cvencek et al., 2011) and grows as children enter adolescence (McKown and Strambler, 2009). Self-determination theory posits that behavior is strongly influenced by three universal, innate, psychological needsautonomy (the urge to control ones own life), competence (the urge to experience mastery), and psychological relatedness (the urge to interact with, be connected to, and care for others). According to self-efficacy theory, learning develops from multiple sources, including perceptions of ones past performance, vicarious experiences, performance feedback, affective/physiological states, and social influences. In middle school, this culturally connected identity is linked to higher grade-point averages among African American (Altschul et al., 2006; Eccles et al., 2006), Latino (Oyserman, 2009), and Native American students in North. Theoretical approaches are an understandably integral part of the therapeutic . Participating students responded to only 16 of the full set of 81 MSLQ Similar negative effects of stereotype threat manifest among Latino youth (Aronson and Salinas, 1997; Gonzales et al., 2002; Schmader and Johns, 2003). This line of research has also suggested particular characteristics of texts that are associated with learner interest. Social dimensions of identity are linked to social roles or characteristics that make one recognizable as a member of a group, such as being a woman or a Christian (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). In this section, the committee discusses three specific lines of research that illustrate the importance of culturally mediated views of the self and social identities to learners perceptions of learning environments, goals, and performance. For example, a persons view as to whether intelligence is fixed or malleable is likely to link to his views of the malleability of his own abilities (Hong and Lin-Siegler, 2012). This volume addresses motivation in language learning First, the interventions directly target the psychological mechanisms that affect student motivation rather than academic content. WebThe second section (motivation orientations) is made up of seven different motivation orientations, which were 1. integrative orientation (Item 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13), 2. instrumental orientation (Item 2, 4, 7, 9, 12, 14), 3. intrinsic motivation (Item For instance, when learner interest is low, students may be less engaged and more likely to attend to the learning goals that require minimal attention and effort. Research suggests, for example, that aspects of the learning environment can both trigger and sustain a students curiosity and interest in ways that support motivation and learning (Hidi and Renninger, 2006). Studies such as these are grounded in different theories of motivation related to the learners cognition, affect, or behavior and are intended to affect different aspects of motivation. Perceived classroom goals are also strongly linked to learners academic efficacy in the transition to middle school. Measures and instruments Intrinsic and Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom. 8. A recent study examined interventions designed to boost the sense of belonging among African American college freshmen (Walton and Cohen, 2011). Copyright 2023 National Academy of Sciences. For example, women are given a test in math. As discussed in Chapter 2, the way individuals perceive and interpret the world and their own role in it, and their expectations about how people function socially, reflect the unique set of influences they have experienced. Many studies of how interest affects learning have included measures of reading comprehension and text recall. Sometimes the spark of motivation begins with a meaningful alignment of student interest with an assignment or other learning opportunity. They seek to extend their For example, a brief intervention was designed to enhance student motivation by helping learners to overcome the negative impact of stereotype threat on social belongingness and sense of self (Yeager et al., 2016). One possible reason why exercising choice seems to increase motivation is that the act of making a choice induces cognitive dissonance: a feeling of being uncomfortable and unsure about ones decision. The implementation level of theories such as social cognitive theory and expectancy theory is still in initial stages but can significantly contribute to understanding motivation in learning as well as other aspects of life where motivation is crucial. 1. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Theory For example, African American adolescents with positive attitudes toward their racial/ethnic group express higher efficacy beliefs and report more interest and engagement in school (Chavous et al., 2003). The value of culturally connected racial/ethnic identity is also evident for Mexican and Chinese adolescents (Fuligni et al., 2005). A comprehensive review of this literature is beyond the scope of this report, but we highlight a few key points. The studies included using measures of authentic education outcomes (e.g., standardized test scores, persistence at a task, course choices, or engagement) and showed consistent, small effects across intervention type. WebIn a substantial review, Murphy and Alexander ( 2000) have identified a corpus of 20 academic achievement-related motivational terms that can be grouped into four clusters: (a) goal, including ego-involved goal, task-involved goal, learning goal, mastery goal, performance goal, work-avoidance goal, and social goal; (b) intrinsic versus extrinsic Self-Regulated Learning Strategies (English) Scale. However, the effect size was small and limited to a small subset of underachieving students (Blackwell et al., 2007). In a prototypical experiment to test stereotype threat, a difficult achievement test is given to individuals who belong to a group for whom a negative stereotype about ability in that achievement domain exists. 4 The 2006 study included 119 African American and 119 European American students; the 2009 study was a 2-year follow-up with the same sample. It includes statements such as, I learn because I am interested in the topic.. Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released. They also consider how physical aspects of the learning environment, such as classroom structures (Ames, 1986) and social interactions (e.g., Gehlbach et al., 2016), affect learning through their impacts on students goals, beliefs, affect, and actions. The downside of this motivation is that learners are more likely to drop your course if they fall into a rut and become discouraged. Because of the anticipatory nature of this phase, task analysis depends on a number of key sources of motivation, such as goal orientations, interest, task value, and self-efficacy or outcome expectations. Researchers distinguish between two main types of goals: mastery goals, in which learners focus on increasing competence or understanding, and performance goals, in which learners are driven by a desire to appear competent or outperform others (see Table 6-1). The perception of choice also may affect learning by fostering situational interest and engagement (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2013). WebAccording to Dickinson (1995), success in learning and enhanced motivation will occur when a learner has more control of his/her own learning process. Current researchers regard many of these factors as important but have also come to focus on learners as active participants in learning and to pay greater attention to how learners make sense of and choose to engage with their learning environments. Researchers have identified several actions educators can take that may help to manage stereotype threat. As learners experience success at a task or in a domain of learning, such as reading or math, the value they attribute to those activities can increase over time (Eccles and Wigfield, 2002). For example, they argued that East Asian cultures tend to emphasize collectivistic goals, which promote a comparatively interdependent self-construal in which the self is experienced as socially embedded and ones accomplishments are tied to the community. 1. Some evidence suggests that it is possible to change students self-attributions so that they adopt a growth mindset, which in turn improves their academic performance (Blackwell et al., 2007). TABLE 6-1 Mindsets, Goals, and Their Implications for Learning. So, what was the problem? The Self-regulated External rewards, it is argued, may also undermine the learners perceptions of autonomy and control. However, clear feedback that sets high expectations and assures a student that he can reach those expectations are also important (Cohen and Steele, 2002; Cohen et al., 1999). The chart refers to a color-coded scheme for monitoring behavior with three levels: green (successful), yellow (warning), and red (call parent). Further, congruence in learners perceptions of their own and their schools mastery orientation is associated with positive academic achievement and school well-being (Kaplan and Maehr, 1999). Typically, in language learning theorizing, a goal orientation is viewed as a reason, or a cluster of reasons for learning the language. Motivation to learn is fostered for learners of all ages when they perceive the school or learning environment is a place where they belong and when the environment promotes their sense of agency and purpose. Mindsets develop over time as a function of learning experiences and cultural influences. Problem solving is facilitated when the salient mindset is well matched to the task at hand, suggesting that flexibility in cultural mindset also may promote flexible cognitive functioning and adaptability to circumstances (Vezzali et al., 2016). Although cultures may vary on average in their emphasis on individualism and collectivism, learners may think in either individualistic and collectivistic terms if primed to do so (Oyserman et al., 2009). A learning orientation benefits from a growth mindset, but highlights the cognitive intention of proactively seeking to learn from any situation. to learn and their decisions to expend effort on learning, whether in the moment or over time. Similar research also points to an apparent shifting between two distinct neural networks that researchers have associated with an action now mindset (with respect to the choices and behaviors for executing a task during learning) and a possible future/values oriented. This requires bolstering or repositioning dimensions of social identity. Web1. Improvements in the ability to clearly define, distinguish among, and measure motivational constructs could improve the validity and usefulness of intervention research. For example, priming interventions such as those that encourage participants to call up personal memories of cross-cultural experiences (Tadmor et al., 2013) have been used successfully to shift students from their tendency to take one cultural perspective or the other. The next section examines types of goals and research on their influence. 2 The 2008 study was a meta-analysis, so the study populations are not described. All rights reserved. When learners perceive mastery goals are valued in the classsroom, they are more likely, TABLE 6-2 Achievement Goals and Classroom Climate. View our suggested citation for this chapter. less likely to seek challenges and persist than those who focus on learning itself. These students experience a form of stereotype threat, where prevailing cultural stereotypes about their position in the world cause them to doubt themselves and perform more poorly (Steele and Aronson, 1995). Thus, the negative effects of stereotype threat may not be as apparent on easy tasks but arise in the context of difficult and challenging tasks that require mental effort (Beilock et al., 2007). The effects of negative stereotypes about African American and Latino students are among the most studied in this literature because these stereotypes have been persistent in the United States (Oyserman et al., 1995).